Group+C+-+Wiki+Space

=Group C =



Group Members

Abdul-Rahim Saud Muhammad Jermaine Davis Latisha M Davis Patrick Joseph Keating Thomas Michael Hayman

Glossary of Research Terms
** Action research - ** A systematic inquiry, with the collaboration of those affected by the issue being studied, for purposes of education and taking action or effecting change (615 Glossary). In education, research practitioners would seek answers to issues and questions that relate to culture (Brighton). For example, a research practitioner would conduct an action research inquiry to find out why students form minority cultures choose less advanced classes in a particular school, district, or region. The practitioner would identify the issues and challenges of minority involvement in advance classes, conduct research, determine the reason for the problem, and seek answers and insight about how to improve the culture in which minority students choose more advance classes. The minority group would be group who is affected by the issue and the research would involve that specific group of students. The research will seek evidence of change in the minority groups’ involvement in advanced classes.

**Case Study** - For of qualitative, descriptive research that refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of the subjects themselves (615 Glossary). Case studies involve long periods of observation and data collection. The benefit of case studies is better knowledge about a subject that can lead to future extensive research. For example, a case study was conducted on a high school teacher to find ways to improve student’s academic and social performance. The case study provided relevant and effective information from classroom observations and performance feedback. The results were gains in classroom engagement and reduced behavior problems (Colvin, Flannery, Sugai, & Monegan, 2009).


 * Criterion-Referenced Tests-** In implementing an assessment exercise to determine a student's individual skill sets and learning abilities, there are two primary instruments educators can use. The first is the traditional Standardized Tests. The second is Criterion Referenced Test or assessments. These CST's "compares a child to a preset criterion, unlike standardized tests that compare a child's performance with other childre of the same age or grade" ( Klecan-Aker & Colson, 2009). While a standardized test ask the same questions to every student, a CST allows the teachers and counselors to ask questions of the test that point to specific areas of concern. If a student was having issues with verbs in english class, they are able to ask questions that deal directly with the issue on the CST. This individualized assessment capability are, according to Klecan-Aker and Colson, "considered to be more valid indicators of a child's performance" (Klecan-Aker & Colson, 2009).


 * Data Inventory**- is a summary of the various types of data that are available within a school. The task of maintaining a school's data inventory usually falls to a member of the school's data team. The team member should maintain the data electronically and organize it into easy to use and read format, such as a table with cleared defined colums and headers. By updating and maintaining the data basis on a consistent basis the document becomes a living document. Boudett recommends that the inventory include; external assessments, such as State Standardized Tests; internal assessments, such as science fair projects and/or quarterly grades and; other student-level information, such as demographic and background information. If school's are to effectively utilize their data inventory they need to maintain it in an easy to use format so educators can access it on a needs basis.

**Document Analysis** - Document analysis in research is part of what is called qualitative research. It involves data which existed before research was done. According to Price, “Documents reveal what people do or did and what they value. This behavior occurred in a natural setting, so the data is strong validity (Price, p. 9).” Sources of Documents for document analysis: 1. Public records 2. The media 3. Private papers 4. Biography 5. Visual documents

** Experimental research ** - Muijs (2004) explains that experimental research allows one to determine causality by controlling external variable which negatively affect the cause-effect relationship that is being researched (p. 22). Muijs (2004) also illustrates that the three factors which need to be present to determine cause and effect are: a relationship between variables, time order in which one variable comes before the other, and there cannot be a confounding variable which brought about the effect (p. 23-24). An example of the relationship between variables (which can be positive or negative) are that in our Improvement Plan assessment, we find that excessive absence is related to lower grades. We also find that since absence is present before the grades, these variables also meet the time order requirement. Finally, an example of a confounding variable would be that these students’ failing grades would be due to not getting enough sleep. Experimental research is considered a qualitative research method Reigeluth, C.M., & Frick, T.W., 1999, p. 2).

** Formative research methods ** - Reigeluth and Frick (1999) explain that formative research is “a kind of developmental research or action research that is intended to improve design theory for designing instructional practices or processes (p. 1).” According to Joseph and Reigeluth, it is a form of evaluation, action and design-based research (Greeno, Collins & Resnick, 1996; The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003) that is intended to identify potential improvements for a design theory (or guidance system) by finding ways to improve a case that is conducted according to that design theory. There are six steps in formative research; there must be design theory, an instance of the theory, collection and analysis of data taken from the instance, revision, repeating the data collection, analysis, and revision, and offer revisions to the theory (Joseph, R., & Reigeluth, C. M., 2005, p. 942-944). Joseph and Reigeluth (2005) explain that the formative research methodology is a qualitative research methodology (p. 937).

** Hypothesis ** - The Marriam-Webster dictionary has various definitions for the term hypothesis, however, the one with the closest relationship to education is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences (2010). Having a hypothesis is important to research because it is what drives or gives a research project direction. I will be able to teach my first graders the term hypothesis in order to complete a small scale research project about the differences between the schools were we live and the schools in China.

** Inference ** - According to Marriam-Webster inference can be defined as: something that is inferred; especially : a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of known facts or evidence (2010). This can be important to research during the findings or explanation stages of an investigation. I can possibly teach my students how to infer after a lengthy investigation about the life of frogs. My first graders could infer that the tadpole they see swimming in the pond will become a full grow frog in a few weeks.

** Non-Experimental Research ** - Causal comparative research where one seeks to observe or identify natural causes and non-manipulated causes to determine the effect on relationships. As we discussed in an earlier conference, to gather a clear and complete picture of data, it behooves one to consider other data sources. While a chart may show a students scores on a state assessment in black and white, by looking at other data sources such as; in class tests, homework, projects and teacher or guidance counselor observations, we can determine the causes of the students failures or successes. This triangulation of data offers the observer a more complete picture of the student. As Gummer and Pegg stated, non-experimental research is “research experiences that engage teachers in non-experimental and multi-disciplinary inquiry” (Gummer & Pegg, 2010). This cross over of methods and disciplines is vital in any data inquiry scenario, especially as it relates to the education of our nation’s youth.

**Percentile-**The term percentile refers to a ranking out of 100. The highest percentile possible is 100. Anyone who scores lower than 100 is considered in a subpercentile such as the 95th percentile, 20th percentile and so on. Percentiles are used to compare groups of students participating in the same assessment. This is important in education to compare students to their peers. In my teaching situation percentiles are useful for identifying potential special education students.

**Percentile Ranks** -  Percentage of scores in its frequency distribution which are lower or equal to it; are normally distributed and bell shaped (615 Glossary). A percentile rank is not a score and it does not form an equal interval square, however it varies based on a normal bell curve (Bracey, p. 157). For example, the distance between the sixtieth and the seventieth percentiles can be much smaller than the distance between the eightieth and the ninetieth percentiles. The reason is the distribution in a bell-curve shape could have more tests score between the sixtieth and seventieth percentiles and lesser scores between the eightieth and ninetieth range. In conclusion, a test score that is greater than 80% of all score is defined as have a rank in the 80th percentile for that particular test.

** Practitioner Research ** - Research carried out by practitioners for the purpose of advancing their own practice. Practitioner research should be implemented by educational professionals on a daily basis if time permits. It allows them to observe, evaluate and comment on their daily classroom practices. From the lesson plans, methodologies and philosophies that teachers adhere to daily, practitioner research allows them to experiment and tinker with that which works and that which does not. What resonates completely with one class may fall on deaf ears in the next. Practitioner research affords teachers the opportunity to adjust their styles to not only each class but each individual student.

**Simpson’s paradox** - is referred to an aggregate group that shows one trend or pattern, but its subgroups show a different trend or pattern, usually the reverse tread (Bracey). In education, subgroups like ethnic groups, low-income students, and special education students are variables that can represent reversed trends in the aggregate group. The composition of the subgroup must be identified within Simpson’s Paradox. A study (Matheson) revealed scholarship athletes’ graduation rates were lower among African Americans males, while the overall graduation rates among male athletes exceed those of their peers. This dynamic requires careful attention toward to graduation rates among African American male athletes (subgroup) and not ignore the trend within the whole outlook of academic success (aggregate group). I would keep this in mind as part of large data group at my school. I will analyze data to identify subgroups that show a reverse pattern that in achievement and work with faculty to reverse the trend.

** Standard deviation ** - the range between values in a data set in relation to the mean. Once the mean, or average of the data set is calculated, the other data values can be analyzed to determine how close or how far they are from the mean, thus determining their deviation. In the classroom, standard deviation can be used to determine the range of abilities in your classroom. Once students have been identified using the standard deviation, small groups can be formed to focus on reteaching, extending or remediating instruction for the students. Additionally, standard deviation can be used by special educators and general educators to assess any discrepancies between the students ability and their performance. This can help to identify students with specific learning disabilities.

** Standard score ** - when given a group of students a norm referenced test, the standard score is used to compare a group of peers. Data from the norm referenced test is analyzed by its proximity to the standard score. Students scoring less than the standard score are considered below average. Students that score significantly above the standard score are considered above average. Scores that fall within a confidence ban around the standard score are considered average. In the classroom, standard scores are collected through testing such as county level quarterlies and state mandated testing such as the Maryland School Assessment (MSA). The standard score can be used to determine the proximity of a student to proficiency level. This information can be used to determine intervention placements, classroom settings and possible necessary services and accommodations.

** Stanine ** - Stanine is a combination of the words “standard” and “nine.” The term refers to a score that is given out of a total of 9 possible points. Stanines are used in education typically with special education and school psychologists assessments. These scores are useful to compare students using a standard scale for a given assessment. In special education we use stanines when deciding whether or not a student qualifies for special education services.

** Structured Observation ** - It is a way of observing students, and comes in many forms. The purpose of a structured observation is to record data by witnessing it. A formal structured observation will allow observers the ability to accurately assess and compare student performance (Thiede, C., 2004). This is why structured observations are often used in school settings. Westover (2002) writes, ““Structured” just means that you won’t try to observe everything but will observe that which you decide in advance to watch. When using this method, observers try not to influence the environment they observe (Westover, 2002).”

====**Focus groups ** ==== ====According to Wikipedia a focus group is a form of [|qualitative research] in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a chosen topic. The groups are chosen according to specific criteria depending on what is being researched. Criteria us can be age, gender or interests of participants. One possible use in my classroom could be to use a “focus group” to get an idea of how a lesson was received or for suggestions about interests of the students for future lessons. ====

**Validity **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">
====<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">According to the Colordo State University website, Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. It also states that validity is deals with a study’s successfully measuring what they inteneded to measure. ====

** Bibliography **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Atchenson, L. (1951). The coining of 'stanine.' American Speech, Vol. 26, No. 1 pp. 72-74 Published by: Duke University Press Stable URL : [|http://www.jstor.org/stable/453323 .]

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Bracey, G. W. (2006). Reading educational research: how to avoid getting statistically snookered. Portsmout, NH: Heinemann.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Boudette, K.P. (2005). //Data wise//. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard Education Press.

Christmann, E. P., & Badgett, J. L. (2008). CHAPTER 4: STANDARD SCORES. In, Interpreting Assessment Data: Statistical Techniques You Can Use (pp. 75-95). National Science Teachers Association. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Colvin, G., Flannery, K., Sugai, G., & Monegan, J. (2009). Using Observational Data to Provide Performance Feedback to Teachers: A High School Case Study. //Preventing School Failure, 53//(2), 95-104.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Brighton, C. M., & Moon, T. R. (2007). Action research step by step: a tool for educators to change their worlds. //Gifted Child Today. 30//(2), 23-27.

Gorard, S. (2005). Revisiting a 90-Year-Old Debate: The Advantages of the Mean Deviation. British Journal of Educational Studies (pp. 417-430). Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Society for Educational Studies Article Stable URL: []

Gummer, E., Pegg, J. 2010. The influence of a multi-disciplinary scientific research experience on teacher views of the nature of science. Montana Mathematics Enthusiast. Vol 7. Issue 2/3.

Joseph, R., & Reigeluth, C. M. (2005). Formative research on an early stage of the systemic change process in a small school district. //British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(6)//, 937-956. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00566.x

Klecan-Aker, Joan S., & Colson, K. (2009). Criterion-referenced assessment for language organization:an example of evidence-based practice. //Proceedings of the Forum on public policy online.//

Marriam-Webster Dictionary. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypothesis and []

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Matherson, V. A. (2007). Research note: athletic graduation rates and simpson’s paradox. //Economics of Education Review. 26//(4) 516-520.

Muijs, D. (2004). //Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS//. London: Sage Publications.

Price, J. (2000). Research methods lecture notes. Personal interviews. //Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice,// The University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Retrieved from []

Reigeluth, C.M., & Frick, T.W. (1999). Formative research: a methodology for improving design theories. Taken from []

Thiede, C. (2004). Structured Observations. Taken from []

Welsh, B. H. (2010). EQUALITY AND SCHOOLING: LAGGARDS, PERCENTILES AND THE U.S. CONSTITUTION. Philosophical Studies in Education, 4129-37. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Westover, B. (2002). Using structured observation to answer questions about an event. //UW-Extension//. Taken from [|www.uwex.edu/ces/tobaccoeval/pdf/structuredobs.pdf]

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